Thomas Nuhfer | March 7th, 2025

It’s estimated that 90% of the world’s flowering plants are pollinated by animals [1], and that 35% of the world’s food comes from animal-pollinated crop species [2]. Bees are particularly prolific (and well-known) pollinators, but flies, wasps, moths, and beetles also frequently pollinate. Here are five especially uncommon pollinators you might not have heard about (yet):

WOLVES

A recent study documented Ethiopian wolves (Canis simensis) collecting pollen from the flowers of the Ethiopian red hot poker plant (Kniphofia foliosa) [3]. Though these wolves are carnivores, they also forage for nectar [in the season] by licking mature flowers (Fig 1).

Figure 1 – Images from a recent study demonstrating Ethiopian wolves licking K. foliosa flowers. (Source: Lai et al., 2024.)

 Nectar is not a significant part of these wolves’ diet – instead, it’s suspected to be a supplement. This is an idea scientists refer to as the “dessert hypothesis”, which is exactly what it sounds like: wolves like to have a little extra sweetness in their diet! As the wolves forage, pollen falls onto the fur of their muzzles. It’s not yet known whether the wolves actually effectively bring the pollen to other flowers, and if so, how critical they are to the flowers’ reproduction. Hopefully, the observation of this behavior is the first step towards further study. 

SLUGS AND SNAILS

Okay, these critters may not be your first choice of garden pollinators. Malacophily – pollination by slugs and snails – is thought to be quite rare, as slugs and snails are likely to eat floral tissues to the detriment of the plant, and their slime can degrade pollen quality. However, snails have been demonstrated to be effective pollinators for Volvulopsis nummularium, visiting frequently and transmitting pollen that increases seed and fruit set for the flowers [4]. While these flowers are also visited by honey bees, the snails play an important pollination role by filling in on rainy days when the bees are not active. 

Figure 2 – Snails visiting V. nummularium flowers. (Source: Sarma et al., 2007.)

SEA BUGS

Undersea flowering plants like seagrass (Fig. 3) largely rely on aquatic currents to move their pollen around. But recently, aquatic invertebrates have been documented carrying pollen between underwater turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) plants, resulting in successful fertilization [5] (Fig. 4). Because many small ocean invertebrates hide during the day and become active at night, the seagrass flowers open only at night. Since these plants mostly reproduce clonally, successful pollination introduces needed genetic diversity. 

Figure 3 – Turtlegrass (Thalassia testudinum), a flowering seagrass. (Source: James St. John via Wikimedia Commons)

Figure 4 – A crab larvae found to be carrying a turtle grass pollen grain. (Source: van Tussenbroek et al., 2016)

UNDERGROUND…BEETLES?

Pinanga subterranea is a small palm, native to Borneo, which produces flowers and fruits entirely belowground (Fig. 5). While it’s clear that successful pollination takes place for this species, the “how” (or the “who”) is a bit of a mystery. Some scientists speculate that underground insects, perhaps beetles, are spreading pollen, and/or that self pollination may occur [6]. The fruits of Pinanga subterranea are a common part of Indigenous foodways in Indonesia, so more detailed knowledge about the species certainly exists, even if it hasn’t yet been highlighted in scientific journals. 

Figure 5 – The underground fruits of P. subterranea, and a bearded pig (one of the species’ seed dispersers). (Source: Kuhnhäuser et al., 2023)

ROBOTS

As pollinators face a multitude of threats, some researchers and farmers have looked towards other means of pollinating food crops. Over 350 patents were filed for artificial pollination technology in 2021 alone [7]. Artificial pollination technology ranges from paintbrushes and handheld sprayers to unmanned aerial drones and autonomous robotic machines using image recognition technologies [7]. Drones and autonomous tech are currently used by some producers of dates, walnuts, strawberries, and corn, among other crops. However, many researchers agree that drones are not an adequate substitute for the wide diversity of living pollinators, and in fact pose significant risks to biodiversity, ecosystem function, and food security [8]. Given all these wild and wonderful pollinators, it’s unlikely that these technologies could feasibly take their places, especially for the many, many pollination-dependent plant species that aren’t commercial crops. 

References:

[1] Tong, Z, Wu L., Feng, H.,  Zhang, M., Armbruster W.S., Renner, S.S., and H, S.Q.  “New Calculations Indicate That 90% of Flowering Plant Species Are Animal-Pollinated.” National Science Review 10, no. 10 (October 1, 2023): nwad219. https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwad219.

[2] Ollerton, J., Winfree, R., and Tarrant, S. “How Many Flowering Plants Are Pollinated by Animals?” Oikos 120, no. 3 (2011): 321–26. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2010.18644.x.

[3] Lai, S., Léandri-Breton, D.J, Lesaffre, A.,Samune, A., Marino, J., and Sillero-Zubiri, C. “Canids as Pollinators? Nectar Foraging by Ethiopian Wolves May Contribute to the Pollination of Kniphofia Foliosa.” Ecology 105, no. 12 (2024): e4470. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4470.

[4]. Sarma, K., Tandon, R., Shivanna, K.R., and Mohan Ram, H.Y. “Snail-Pollination in Volvulopsis Nummularium.” Current Science 93, no. 6 (2007): 826–31.

[5] van Tussenbroek, B., Villamil, N., Márquez-Guzmán, J., Wong, R., Monroy-Velázquez, L.V., and Solis-Weiss, V. “Experimental Evidence of Pollination in Marine Flowers by Invertebrate Fauna.” Nature Communications 7, no. 1 (September 29, 2016): 12980. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms12980.

[6] Kuhnhäuser, B.G., Randi, A., Petoe, P., Chai, P.P.K., Bellot, S., and Baker, W.J. “Hiding in Plain Sight: The Underground Palm Pinanga Subterranea.” PLANTS, PEOPLE, PLANET 5, no. 6 (2023): 815–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppp3.10393.

[7] Broussard, M.A., Coates, M., and Martinsen, P. “Artificial Pollination Technologies: A Review.” Agronomy 13, no. 5 (May 2023): 1351. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13051351.

[8] Potts, S.G., Neumann, P., Vaissière, B., and Vereecken, N.J.. “Robotic Bees for Crop Pollination: Why Drones Cannot Replace Biodiversity.” Science of The Total Environment 642 (November 15, 2018): 665–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.114.